Ancient Historical Sources
Anabasis Alexandri (The Campaigns of Alexander)
Author: Arrian (Lucius Flavius Arrianus)
Written In: 140 CE
Original Language: Greek
Source Type: ancient_text
Summary
Arrian's Anabasis Alexandri is considered the most reliable ancient account of Alexander's campaigns. Written in the 2nd century CE, it draws heavily on the contemporary accounts of Ptolemy and Aristobulus, who accompanied Alexander. The work provides a chronological narrative of Alexander's conquests from his accession to his death, with particular focus on military operations. Arrian's military background and critical approach to sources makes his account especially valuable.
Notable Excerpts
- Description of Alexander's basic biographical details: Alexander was born the son of Philip, king of Macedon. According to Aristobulus, he died in the hundred and fourteenth Olympiad, in the archonship of Hegesias at Athens [June 323 BCE]. He lived, according to Aristobulus, thirty-two years and eight months; he reigned twelve years and eight months. His body was handsome, but what pleased his friends most was his eagerness for exertion and his honesty.
- Assessment of Alexander's historical significance: Alexander's end was worthy of his life. He performed many mighty achievements; of all the kings who preceded him in Europe, none could be compared with him for daring and success.
Reliability Assessment
Overall Rating: high
Strengths:
- Based on firsthand accounts of Alexander's companions, particularly Ptolemy
- Author had military experience, allowing for informed assessment of tactics
- Generally shows critical approach to sources
- Relatively free of supernatural elements compared to other ancient biographies
Weaknesses:
- Written approximately 400 years after the events described
- Possible bias toward Ptolemy's account
- Some episodes may be idealized to present Alexander in a positive light
Digital Resources
Life of Alexander
Author: Plutarch (Lucius Mestrius Plutarchus)
Written In: 110 CE
Original Language: Greek
Source Type: ancient_text
Summary
Plutarch's Life of Alexander is one of his Parallel Lives, comparing great Greek and Roman figures. Unlike Arrian's military history, Plutarch focuses on Alexander's character, virtues, and vices, with many anecdotes intended to reveal his personality. Written approximately 400 years after Alexander's death, it draws on various sources including now-lost works by Alexander's contemporaries.
Notable Excerpts
- Context of Alexander's inheritance from Philip: It was Philip who took the first steps in all this affair, who raised himself to greater things, and prepared the way for his son's successes. He found Macedonia weak and disunited: he gave his people a common goal, and turned them into an organized military state, instead of scattered shepherds and helpless vagrants who could barely maintain themselves against their neighbors.
- Plutarch's approach to biography: For my part, I write not to inform but to remember. Battles and famous victories, where thousands fall, and ten thousand, and greatest exploits of violence, are commonly the subject of history; but the many circumstances and accidents that concur in forming great natures, small things to a common eye, a word or a jest, may better inform us of their real character than battles with the slaughter of tens of thousands.
Reliability Assessment
Overall Rating: medium
Strengths:
- Preserves many anecdotes and details not found in other sources
- Focuses on character development and personal traits often overlooked in military histories
- Draws on a wide range of sources, some contemporaneous with Alexander
Weaknesses:
- Written approximately 400 years after the events
- Prioritizes moral lessons over historical accuracy
- Often includes contradictory versions of the same events
- Contains some clearly apocryphal stories
Digital Resources
Bibliotheca Historica (Historical Library)
Author: Diodorus Siculus
Written In: -30 CE
Original Language: Greek
Source Type: ancient_text
Summary
Diodorus Siculus was a Greek historian who wrote a universal history called the Bibliotheca Historica ('Historical Library'). Book 17 of this work covers Alexander's reign and campaigns in detail. Written in the late first century BCE, it draws on earlier historians, particularly Cleitarchus, who wrote a sensationalistic account of Alexander within decades of his death.
Notable Excerpts
- Transition from Greek campaigns to Persian invasion: After the capture of Thebes, when all the Greeks were panic-stricken, Alexander ordered the allied cities to furnish troops and he himself set out to lead the war against Persia.
- Account of Alexander's fatal illness: His body was completely soaked with sweat and overcome with thirst. Seeing a spring of water near the place called the Ox Wagons, he leapt from his horse and, enchanted by the coolness of the water, he drank greedily and straightway was seized by anguish and took to his bed.
Reliability Assessment
Overall Rating: medium
Strengths:
- Provides a continuous narrative of Alexander's campaigns
- Preserves details not found in Arrian or Plutarch
- In some cases may draw on Cleitarchus and other early lost sources
Weaknesses:
- Often confused in chronology
- Contains exaggerations and rhetorical flourishes
- Less critical of sources than Arrian
- Numerical figures often inflated
Digital Resources
Geography (Geographica)
Author: Strabo
Written In: 17 CE
Original Language: Greek
Source Type: ancient_text
Summary
Strabo's Geography is a comprehensive description of the known world during the early Roman Empire. While not specifically focused on Alexander, it contains valuable information about the regions Alexander conquered, the cities he founded, and the lasting impact of his campaigns on geography and ethnography. Strabo often mentions Alexander's activities in his regional descriptions and provides details not found in the main historical narratives.
Notable Excerpts
- Description of Alexandria's founding and location: Alexandria in Egypt was founded by Alexander on the site previously called Rhacotis. He did this after careful consideration, recognizing the advantages of the harbor and the access to both the Mediterranean Sea and Lake Mareotis.
- Context for the founding of multiple Alexandrias: The Macedonians called some cities they founded after their kings, such as Antigonia, Seleucia, Cassandreia, just as they did after Alexander with the many Alexandrias.
Reliability Assessment
Overall Rating: high
Strengths:
- Author traveled extensively and directly observed many locations
- Critical approach to sources
- Geographic expertise provides valuable context for Alexander's campaigns
- Preserves information from many now-lost works
Weaknesses:
- Not focused specifically on Alexander
- Some descriptions based on earlier, potentially outdated sources
- Occasional errors in distances and measurements
Digital Resources
