Date: May 334 BCE
Location: Near the Granicus River (modern Biga Çayı, Turkey)
Battle Type: Pitched battle (with a critical river-crossing element)
Macedonian Side: Alexander the Great (commanding personally), supported by his Companion cavalry and infantry generals.
Persian Side: A coalition of local satraps and Persian officers (names vary among sources), responsible for the defense of Asia Minor.
Macedonian Forces: Approximately 40,000 troops (including roughly 7,000 cavalry and the remainder infantry).
Persian Forces: Estimates range from 40,000 to 50,000 soldiers, comprising infantry, cavalry, and mercenary contingents.
Macedonian Losses: Relatively low (likely several hundred).
Persian Losses: Heavy losses; some accounts suggest losses in the range of 10,000–20,000.
Terrain: The battle unfolded along river banks. The Macedonians had to execute a daring crossing under fire, with the river’s presence forcing a rapid and decisive assault that negated the Persians’ numerical advantage.
Weather Conditions: Likely mild, typical spring weather aiding mobility.
Alexander’s personal spearheading of the cavalry charge, which directly targeted the Persian left and turned the tide of battle.
Macedonian Tactics: Coordinated infantry and cavalry operations, rapid offensive actions, and exploiting the enemy’s disarray.
Persian Tactics: Defensive positioning along natural barriers and reliance on numerical superiority.
Macedonian Equipment: Macedonian phalanx armed with sarissas, heavily armored Companion cavalry equipped with lances and swords, supplemented by light missile troops.
Persian Equipment: Persian forces utilized traditional short spears, bows, and a mix of infantry and cavalry armor suited to defensive engagements.
The victory secured Asia Minor for Alexander, providing a crucial foothold for further advances into Persian territory.
Opened the gateway into Asia Minor and set the precedent for Alexander’s relentless pursuit of Persian power.
Actively led his troops from the front, exemplifying the valor and tactical ingenuity for which he is renowned.
A single day of intense combat.
Based primarily on Arrian’s Anabasis of Alexander and Plutarch’s Life of Alexander. While the numbers might be subject to ancient exaggeration, the strategic narrative is widely accepted.
Date: November 333 BCE
Location: Near Issus, in the region of modern southern Turkey (close to Dörtyol, Hatay Province)
Battle Type: Pitched battle
Macedonian Side: Alexander the Great, directly commanding his forces.
Persian Side: King Darius III, personally leading his army.
Macedonian Forces: Approximately 40,000 soldiers (combined infantry and cavalry).
Persian Forces: Traditional ancient accounts claim very large numbers (up to 100,000 or more), though modern historians suggest a numerical advantage that was nonetheless overcome by superior tactics.
Macedonian Losses: Relatively light losses (a few thousand at most).
Persian Losses: Significant casualties, with many troops killed or routed and Darius’ family captured during the retreat.
Terrain: The battle was fought on a narrow coastal plain hemmed in by mountains. This constrained the Persian ability to maneuver and amplified the effectiveness of Alexander’s concentrated attack.
Weather Conditions: Mild Mediterranean conditions conducive to open-field warfare.
The targeted cavalry assault on the Persian left—aimed directly at undermining the enemy’s command structure—proved critical.
Macedonian Tactics: Use of the phalanx to hold the enemy center while executing a rapid cavalry strike against the flank.
Persian Tactics: Attempted use of sheer numbers and positioning, which ultimately proved ineffective in the constrained terrain.
Macedonian Equipment: Comparable to Granicus, featuring the long sarissas of the phalanx and the heavily armored Companion cavalry, with Darius’ troops using a mixture of Persian armor and weaponry.
Persian Equipment: Attempted use of sheer numbers and positioning, which ultimately proved ineffective in the constrained terrain.
Darius III’s flight and the capture of his family significantly weakened Persian morale and paved the way for further Macedonian advances.
The victory solidified Alexander’s control over the Levant and directly challenged Persian royal power.
Led the battle from the front, with his personal charge being instrumental in breaking the Persian lines.
A single, decisive day-long engagement.
Supported by detailed narratives in Arrian and Plutarch; although numerical figures are debated, the overall account is deemed reliable.